A Beginners Guide to Statistics

A Beginners Guide to Statistics How many calories did each of us eat for breakfast? How far from home did everyone travel today? How big is the place that we call home? How many other people call it home? To make sense of all of this information, certain tools and ways of thinking are necessary. The mathematical science called statistics is what helps us to deal with this information overload. Statistics is the study of numerical information, called data. Statisticians acquire, organize, and analyze data. Each part of this process is also scrutinized. The techniques of statistics are applied to a multitude of other areas of knowledge. Below is an introduction to some of the main topics throughout statistics. Populations and Samples One of the recurring themes of statistics is that we are able to say something about a large group based on the study of a relatively small portion of that group. The group as a whole is known as the population. The portion of the group that we study is the sample. As an example of this, suppose we wanted to know the average height of people living in the United States. We could try to measure over 300 million people, but this would be infeasible. It would be a logistical nightmare conduct the measurements in such a way that no one was missed and no one was counted twice. Due to the impossible nature of measuring everyone in the United States, we could instead use statistics. Rather than finding the heights of everyone in the population, we take a statistical sample of a few thousand. If we have sampled the population correctly, then the average height of the sample will be very close to the average height of the population. Acquiring Data To draw good conclusions, we need good data to work with. The way that we sample a population to obtain this data should always be scrutinized. Which kind of sample we use depends on what question we’re asking about the population. The most commonly used samples are: Simple RandomStratifiedClustered It’s equally important to know how the measurement of the sample is conducted. To go back to the above example, how do we acquire the heights of those in our sample? Do we let people report their own height on a questionnaire?Do several researchers throughout the country measure different people and report their results?Does a single researcher measure everyone in the sample with the same tape measure? Each of these ways of obtaining the data has its advantages and drawbacks. Anyone using the data from this study would want to know how it was obtained. Organizing the Data Sometimes there is a multitude of data, and we can literally get lost in all of the details. It’s hard to see the forest for the trees. That’s why it’s important to keep our data well organized. Careful organization and graphical displays of the data help us to spot patterns and trends before we actually do any calculations. Since the way that we graphically present our data depends upon a variety of factors. Common graphs are: Pie charts or circle graphsBar or pareto graphsScatterplotsTime plotsStem and leaf plotsBox and whisker graphs In addition to these well-known graphs, there are others that are used in specialized situations. Descriptive Statistics One way to analyze data is called descriptive statistics. Here the goal is to calculate quantities that describe our data. Numbers called the mean, median and mode are all used to indicate the average or center of the data. The range and standard deviation are used to say how spread out the data is. More complicated techniques, such as correlation and regression describe data that is paired. Inferential Statistics When we begin with a sample and then try to infer something about the population, we are using inferential statistics. In working with this area of statistics, the topic of hypothesis testing arises. Here we see the scientific nature of the subject of statistics, as we state a hypothesis, then use statistical tools with our sample to determine the likelihood that we need to reject the hypothesis or not. This explanation is really just scratching the surface of this very useful part of statistics. Applications of Statistics It is no exaggeration to say that the tools of statistics are used by nearly every field of scientific research. Here are a few areas that rely heavily on statistics: PsychologyEconomicsMedicineAdvertisingDemography The Foundations of Statistics Although some think of statistics as a branch of mathematics, it is better to think of it as a discipline that is founded upon mathematics. Specifically, statistics is built up from the field of mathematics known as probability. Probability gives us a way to determine how likely an event is to occur. It also gives us a way to talk about randomness. This is key to statistics because the typical sample needs to be randomly selected from the population. Probability was first studied in the 1700s by mathematicians such as Pascal and Fermat. The 1700s also marked the beginning of statistics. Statistics continued to grow from its probability roots and really took off in the 1800s. Today, it’s theoretical scope continues to be enlarged in what is known as mathematical statistics.

Free Essays on Addictions

In this research paper I am asked to identify a social problem that is of interest to me. A social problem refers to a group of people, or a practice, that is considered deviant or contrary to what constitutes a â€Å"normal† or â€Å"valid† society. It is created with the assumption that the behaviour or group is universally considered problematic, or different from the norms of society. The word â€Å"problem† must be placed in context with a dichotomy of non-problem, or â€Å"right†. One can not define what is wrong with out having a comparable situation from which to draw conclusions. It is therefore the people within society who wield power who define this problem. They create the discourse of social problems, and then label what they see. This paper will focus on the social problem, labelled as addictions. I will not focus on any particular type of addiction, but will reference from the two major groups: substance abuse, and behavioural addiction. By referencing several types of addiction, I will establish that addiction stems from more than the current consensus to genetic predisposition. Recent research on the effects of drugs points us toward the conclusion that addiction is something very different from what we have thought it to be. To begin with, there is no necessary connection between addiction and drugs, or, more especially, the opiates (opium, heroin, and morphine). More precisely, addiction has little to do with what drugs contain, although it has a lot to do with what we think drugs can do to us. People often react physically to a placebo- a chemically neutral substance that is presented as being, say, morphine or some powerful medication- just as though it were the real thing. Psychological studies have shown that the way people react to drugs in general is as much a function of their cultural background, expectations, and emotional involvement in the situation as of the chemistry of the drug. T... Free Essays on Addictions Free Essays on Addictions In this research paper I am asked to identify a social problem that is of interest to me. A social problem refers to a group of people, or a practice, that is considered deviant or contrary to what constitutes a â€Å"normal† or â€Å"valid† society. It is created with the assumption that the behaviour or group is universally considered problematic, or different from the norms of society. The word â€Å"problem† must be placed in context with a dichotomy of non-problem, or â€Å"right†. One can not define what is wrong with out having a comparable situation from which to draw conclusions. It is therefore the people within society who wield power who define this problem. They create the discourse of social problems, and then label what they see. This paper will focus on the social problem, labelled as addictions. I will not focus on any particular type of addiction, but will reference from the two major groups: substance abuse, and behavioural addiction. By referencing several types of addiction, I will establish that addiction stems from more than the current consensus to genetic predisposition. Recent research on the effects of drugs points us toward the conclusion that addiction is something very different from what we have thought it to be. To begin with, there is no necessary connection between addiction and drugs, or, more especially, the opiates (opium, heroin, and morphine). More precisely, addiction has little to do with what drugs contain, although it has a lot to do with what we think drugs can do to us. People often react physically to a placebo- a chemically neutral substance that is presented as being, say, morphine or some powerful medication- just as though it were the real thing. Psychological studies have shown that the way people react to drugs in general is as much a function of their cultural background, expectations, and emotional involvement in the situation as of the chemistry of the drug. T... Free Essays on Addictions In this research paper I am asked to identify a social problem that is of interest to me. A social problem refers to a group of people, or a practice, that is considered deviant or contrary to what constitutes a â€Å"normal† or â€Å"valid† society. It is created with the assumption that the behaviour or group is universally considered problematic, or different from the norms of society. The word â€Å"problem† must be placed in context with a dichotomy of non-problem, or â€Å"right†. One can not define what is wrong with out having a comparable situation from which to draw conclusions. It is therefore the people within society who wield power who define this problem. They create the discourse of social problems, and then label what they see. This paper will focus on the social problem, labelled as addictions. I will not focus on any particular type of addiction, but will reference from the two major groups: substance abuse, and behavioural addiction. By referencing several types of addiction, I will establish that addiction stems from more than the current consensus to genetic predisposition. Recent research on the effects of drugs points us toward the conclusion that addiction is something very different from what we have thought it to be. To begin with, there is no necessary connection between addiction and drugs, or, more especially, the opiates (opium, heroin, and morphine). More precisely, addiction has little to do with what drugs contain, although it has a lot to do with what we think drugs can do to us. People often react physically to a placebo- a chemically neutral substance that is presented as being, say, morphine or some powerful medication- just as though it were the real thing. Psychological studies have shown that the way people react to drugs in general is as much a function of their cultural background, expectations, and emotional involvement in the situation as of the chemistry of the drug. T... Free Essays on Addictions Physical and psychological addictions are very alike and very different at the same time. Addiction means that the person addicted thrives on the substance or action. Physical addictions like alcoholism and heroin are sometimes very noticeable yet, psychological addictions like gambling are very hard to diagnose. A similarity between the two types of addictions are the stages that lead up to a full blown addiction. Addictions go through many stages before reaching the pinnacle of an addiction. For example, a gambler will first start off betting a dollar, then two, then ten, then a hundred until finally the gambler is broke. An example for a physical addiction would be the stages that lead to becoming a true alcoholic. It will all start with one beer, , then Jell-O shooters, then a margarita, then just drinking liquor straight up out of the bottle, then who knows what the drinker will turn to next. After going through all of these stages the term used for the addiction is usually dise ase because the addiction is going to slowly kill the person addicted. Though the term addiction is usually thought of as someone on drugs or drinking, many normal everyday people are addicted to the one thing everyone has a little of everyday, caffeine. Caffeine is one of North America’s leading addictions prevalent amongst teenagers. Caffeine is found in chocolate, soda, coffee, and tea. In conclusion, this shows that many things can become addictive. No matter what the addiction it is not good. If more people would realize this there would be less of an addiction crisis than there is today....

Advertising and Marketing Communications of Stella McCartney Assignment - 1

Advertising and Marketing Communications of Stella McCartney - Assignment Example led to the brand’s involvement in the design of Olympic kits for all the competition for both Paralympic games and London Olympics in the year 2012. Stella McCartney was also awarded an Honorary Fellowship by the University of Arts London. Stella McCartney is a modern designer brand that is popular for wearable and aspirational. Stella McCartney’s collection includes accessories, women’s ready-to-wear, eyewear, lingerie, fragrance, and kids wear. This brand is clearly conspicuous due to the blend of femininity and masculinity with the signature style that is characterized by natural confidence and sharp tailoring. Ecological and ethical values seem to be the core of this brand. This brand does not use leather, exotic skins, or fur in its products. However, the brand is well known for the vast use of innovation and creativity. Their products are produced using bio-synthetic and organic materials. At the moment, the brand operates 23 different stores in various locations, including London’s BromptonCross and Mayfair, Paris’ Palais Royal, Los Angeles’ West Hollywood, Tokyo, and Milan. At the moment, the brand collections are now available in more than 50 countries through wholesale accounts that include department stores and specialty shops. The brand has 600 wholesale accounts. However, the brand is also available in 100 couturiers through online sales. One of the communication efforts that have been used by the brand previously is the scholarship of design students who adhere to the brand’s ethical perceptions. This has been particularly effective in raising awareness about the brand’s corporate value. The band would also introduce their products through online platforms such as Twitter and Facebook, mobile application and partnership with department shops. These communication strategies have in a way worked well for the brand in the past.

Philosophy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 14

Philosophy - Essay Example Consequences of an action should be important criteria for the people. Velasquez has maintained that various philosophers like Bantham had pursued the philosophy that actions, which result in maximum happiness for maximum number of people, are invariable good and therefore, the end justifies the means if it generates happiness for people. Popularised as act utilitarian theory, the actions, that are designed to benefit or have beneficial cascading effects on others, are morally and ethically right. Morality can only be defined by rationalizing about ‘whether one is inflicting evil on others’. Emmanuel Kant has been emphatic that moral obligations are imperatives and his two Rules define the categorical imperatives: Rules of Universality; and Rules of Respect. The first one makes says that people at all time must act appropriately and the second rules promotes the value of respect and says that well being al all individuals is important and therefore, one should not use others for their own vested interests. Velasquez has preferred the moderated version of Kantian philosophy and believes that people must act in the manner that minimizes harm and promotes happiness amongst maximum number of people. No, ethics are not based on virtues. Virtues can be broadly defined as highly recommending characteristics of moral principles that people aspire for but they are not mandatory code of conduct. Ethics, on the other hand are value based conduct that are needed to lead a worthy life which serves the benefit of the people at large. Therefore, a person may aspire to be generous and honest in his working, but even if he is not generous or honest but he does not harm others by his actions, he will not be considered unethical. The philosophy is part and parcel of every human being and he or she exhibit it through the wisdom and individual perspectives

Southern Cuisine Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Southern Cuisine - Essay Example The term ‘barbeque’, according to Tar Heel Magazine, originates from the name of a North Carolina bar that operated in the 1800’s. The establishment advertised its name as Bar-Beer-Cue-Pig because it had pool tables (Cue), served liquor and beer (Bar/Beer) and specialized in roasted pig. Pork was a main staple of Southerners’ diet during that time because pigs were easy to maintain, inexpensive, easy to transport and by all accounts, delicious. â€Å"In the pre-Civil War period, Southerners ate, on average, five pounds of pork for every one pound of beef† (Gray, 1982: 27). Pigs don’t need a fence like cows do; they could be turned out to a forest then re-caught when the supply of food ran low. The slaughtering of a pig meant that it was time for a party. All of the neighbors, most supplying a side dish, would be invited or invite themselves to join in the feast. â€Å"In the south, barbeque is pig; slow smoked, chopped, and served on white br ead or buns. Side dishes usually include slaw which is often packed in the bun with the barbeque and hush puppies – small pieces of cornbread deep fried. Slaws vary from mild white to spicy red† (Allison, 2007). Other sides include potato salad with mustard or mayonnaise base, baked beans and possibly a green bean casserole. Roasted corn-on-the-cob is popular particularly in South Texas. Watermelon is a popular dessert following a barbeque. The tradition of barbeque in the South emanated from these types of congregations and had been well-established by the beginning of the 1800’s. It was â€Å"in the fifty years before the Civil War that the traditions associated with large barbecues became entrenched. Plantation owners regularly held large and festive barbecues, including ‘pig pickin’s’ for slaves† (Hilliard, 1972: 59). A church picnic in the South, then as well

Should Euthanasia be Legalised?

Should Euthanasia be Legalised? Modern medicine has been beneficial in improving the quality of life, but sometimes it has been accompanied by harmful and dehumanising effects.   Many terminally ill people have been kept alive against their will by advanced medical technologies and have been denied assistance in dying.   Should now be the time for our society to recognise that terminally ill individuals have the right to choose the time, place, and manner of their own death?   Should euthanasia be legalised because our right as human beings allows us to make our own decisions?   If the right to life is to be a genuine right, rather than a duty to remain alive for as long as possible, shouldn’t people be free to choose their right to die if they consider it worthwhile to do so?   Shouldn’t these persons be allowed their human rights, dignity, and self-determination and ultimately the right to die? The European Convention on Human Rights, Article 2, recognises the right to life by implication, providing: Everyone’s right to life shall be protected by law.   No one shall be deprived of his life intentionally save in the execution of a sentence of a court following his conviction of a crime for which this penalty is provided by law. Deprivation of life shall not be regarded as inflicted in contravention of this Article when it results from the use of force which is no more than absolutely necessary: in defence of any person from unlawful violence; in order to effect a lawful arrest or to prevent the escape of a person lawfully detained; in action lawfully taken for the purpose of quelling a riot or insurrection. While the Convention requires national authorities to protect the right of ‘everyone’ to life, it does not define ‘everyone.’ Therefore, although fundamental, the right to life is generally not regarded as absolute.   Indeed, there are circumstances in which it is lawful to take another man’s life, for example by a lawful act of self-defence.   The present author not concerned with cases such as these but rather the controversial nature of the range of entities which have the right and the content of the right in different circumstances: those for which the European Convention makes no provision.   For example, opponents of euthanasia, may recognize the legitimacy of abortion; a process which involves taking some life.   Furthermore, the right of a person to commit suicide is recognised by some people, due to the belief that the right to self determination is the most essential human right. The debate on whether euthanasia and thus the right t o die in some forms might be morally acceptable practice is the subject of this essay.  Ã‚   For the purposes of this essay and the limitations in word count, there will be no dividing line between refusal of treatment, suicide, assisted suicide and euthanasia.   Rather, Lord Donaldson’s remarks about the right to choose how to live, rather than the right to die, will be taken as true. There is no ambiguity in the law of the United Kingdom towards a positive act of euthanasia; it is murder. The motive to ‘kill’ is certainly irrelevant; intention is the deciding factor.   There have been recommendations of a special offence for ‘mercy killing,’ and although there appears to be no intention to translate this into law, the courts seem reluctant to convict a ‘mercy killer’ to mandatory life imprisonment. The sympathetic view of the judges has still, until recently, consisted of predominately unsuccessful attacks on the legality of euthanasia.   However, lawful euthanasia has arrived in some jurisdictions and has added a new aspect to the debate. In the Netherlands, medically practised euthanasia became lawful in November 2000.   The doctor is required to believe that the patient’s request was ‘voluntary and well considered’ and that the patient’s suffering was ‘lasting and unbearable.’   It is also a requirement that the doctor has consulted an independent physician. The legislation also allows for advanced consent, which carries controversies in relation to the patient who does not wish to die but is killed by a doctor due to earlier written authorisation. However, the main argument against the legislation is that once a prohibition against killing is removed, it is far more difficult to control the practice. Indeed, there is evidence that euthanasia has been practised in many cases without the patient’s consent.   Another concern is that eventually, the grounds for the exercise of euthanasia will become more trivial so that the want itself will overpower the grounds.   One example is the physical healthy woman who becomes depressed. And what of the controversial provision on euthanasia for minors? This practice therefore warns of the dangers of an over sensitive right to die. Similar chances for legislation in the United Kingdom are remote: ‘The Government can see no basis for permitting suicide.   Such a change would be open to abuse and put the lives of the vulnerable and weak at risk.’   The uncertainty of the common law has, in the past, been used as a justification for a change in the law but, it is submitted that the decisions in Pretty and Mrs B clarify the boundaries between the right to live and the right to die.   Acts committed with an intention of bringing life to an end are legally impermissible, save where the patient performs them; treatment may be withdrawn from a competent adult, although the legal prohibition for assisted suicide remains.   For the reasons explained in relation to the Netherlands, it is submitted that the right to die is adequately provided for in existing convention and that there is no requirement for legislation. In conclusion, it is true that a profound respect for the sanctity of human life should be embedded in our law and moral philosophy; that is why murder has always been treated as the most grave and heinous of all crimes.   However, the arguments considered above explicate that the law has to take into account a myriad of interests which are problematic and surprisingly conditional. In matters of life and death, we are dealing with what Professor Laurence Tribe called the ‘clash of absolutes.’   Under these conditions, rules cannot dictate answers.   The best that can be hoped for is to provide answers which are not too inconsistent with too many of them.  

Animal Cruelty :: essays research papers fc

Animal Cruelty The topic of animal cruelty is one of great importance to the wold today. Why we humans have the right reserved to treat animals as lesser individuals is beyond me. Animals are fulfilling their part in the ecosystems and communities of the earth, and to the best extent that they are able. For example, a spider is being the best possible spider that it can be, spinning webs and working diligently at what it knows best, not bothering any creatures of the earth besides the ones which it needs to capture for food. We, as humans, decided that we are a much advanced life form and can basically treat anything else in this world in ways which we cannot imagine being treated. As a result the threads holding our earth together tightly in the balance are being slowly unraveled to lead into ultimate self-destruction. In 1988, 16, 989 animals died in laboratories in the United Kingdom. This was due to such tests as acute and chronic toxicity experiments, where the animals are forced to consume substances such as perfume, make-up and other beauty products and are often literally poisoned, their systems literally overloaded by the substance in question. Another testing method is the Lethal Dose 50 percent test or LD50. In this procedure at least half of the animals must die in order for the government to figure out how much a human can ingest without dying. In one such test some animals were fed 4. lb. of lipstick and one ended up dying of intestinal obstruction. In another, 7 pints of melted eye shadow was fed to rats. In yet another, mice were wrapped in tin foil and grilled in ultraviolet light to test a sun block cream for a total of 96 hours. The results of the test were that the longer the mice stayed in the rays, the more sunburnt they got. But that is not all. A wax product used in many cosmetics was dosed into animals by a stomach tube. The amount that they used is equivalent to feeding 1 Â « lb of the stuff to humans. The animals involved soon began salivating, bleeding from the nose and mouth, and had extreme diarrhoea. As the test progressed some more, the animals became emaciated and unkempt, had congestion in the lungs and kidneys and solid wax in the stomach. The infamous Draize eye test cannot be forgotten either. Chemicals are instilled into the eyes of rabbits in stocks, often for up to seven days. And because their eyes are physiologically different from ours, they cannot produce